During 1964, Nikolai Kardashev proposed a threefold categorization of extraterrestrial cilivizations in terms of the power levels that could utilise in his article “Transmission of Information by Extraterrestrial Civilizations”.
Web Resources
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Book References
Complete text of article reprinted in “The Quest For Extraterrestrial Life : A Book of Readings” (1980) (edited by Donald Goldsmith) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 136-139 (in Chapter 28) of the University Science Books hardback edition.
For discussion of Kardashev’s classification see the following:
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Angelo, Joseph A in his “The Extraterrestrial Encyclopedia: Man’s Search for Life in Outer Space” (1985) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 43-46 (in the entry entitled “extraterrestrial civilizations”), 77 (in the entry entitled “Kardashev civilizations”) of the revised 1991 Fact on File hardback edition. |
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Asimov, Isaac in his “Extraterrestrial Civilizations” (1979) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 249-250 (in Chapter 13) of the Crown hardback edition, at pages 281-283 of the Pan paperback edition. |
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Baird, John C in his “The Inner Limits of Outer Space” (1987) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 57 (in Chapter 4) of the |
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Baxter, Stephen in his “Deep Future” (2001) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 172-173 (in Chapter 21) of the Gollancz paperback edition. |
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Benjamin, |
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Berry, Adrian in his “The Next Ten Thousand Years” (1974) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 27 (in Chapter 1), 153-154 (in Chapter 12) of the Coronet paperback edition. |
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Bracewell, Ronald N in an interview in David W Swift’s “SETI Pioneers : Scientists Talk About Their Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence” (1990) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 159 (in the unnumbered chapter entitled “Ronald N Bracewell”) of the Arizona hardback edition. |
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Clark, Andrew J H and Clark, David H in their “Aliens“ (1999) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 68-69 (in Chapter 2), 228 (in Chapter 7) of the Fromm hardback edition. |
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Clark, Stuart in his “Life on Other Worlds and How to Find It” (2000) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 150-151 (in Chapter 11) of the Springer hardback edition. |
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Coomer, David in his “The UFO Investigator’s Guide” (1999) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 72-73 (in Chapter 5) of the Blandford softback edition. |
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Darling, David in his “The Extraterrestrial Encyclopedia” (2000) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 222-223 (in the entry entitled “Kardashev civilizations”), 223 (in the entry entitled “Kardashev, Nikolai S (1932- )” of the Three Rivers softcover edition. |
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Darling, David in his online encyclopedia, “The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy and Spaceflight” (2003) in the entry entitled “Kardashev Civilizations” and the entry entitled “Kardashev, Nikolai Semenovich (1932- )”. The relevant entries are available online at: http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/K/Kardashevciv.html |
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Dick, Steven J in his “Life on Other Worlds“ (1998) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 214 (in Chapter 7) of the |
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Dick, Steven J in his “The Biological Universe” (1996) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 435-436 (in Chapter 8) of the |
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Drake, Frank and Dava Sobel in their “Is Anyone Out There?“ (1991) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 101-102 (in Chapter 5) of the Pocket Books paperback edition. |
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Dyson, Freeman in his “Disturbing the Universe” (1979) at pages 212-217 (in Chapter 19) of the Harper & Row hardback edition. |
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Fitzgerald, Randall in his “The Cosmic Test Tube” (1998) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 339 (in Section 5) of the Moonlake Media softcover edition. |
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Friedman, Stanton in his “Flying Saucers and Science : A Scientist Investigates the Mysteries of UFOs” (2008) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 97-98 (in Chapter 3) of the New Page softcover edition. |
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Goldsmith, Donald and Owen, Tobias in their “The Search for Life in the Universe” (1980) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 362-363 (in Chapter 18) of the Benjamin Cummings softcover edition, at pages 426-428 (in Chapter 17) of the 1992 Addison Wesley softcover revised second edition. |
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Gott, J Richard in “Extraterrestrials: Where are they?” (1982) (edited by Michael Hart and Ben Zuckerman) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 180 (in Chapter 19) of the |
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Harrison, Albert A in his “After Contact: The Human Response to Extraterrestrial Life” (1997) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 161-163 (in Chapter 6) of the Plenum Trade hardback edition. |
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Heidmann, Jean in his “Extraterrestrial Intelligence” (1995) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 108-110 (in Chapter 5) of the |
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Heidmann, Jean in his “Life in the Universe" (1995) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 92-93 (in Chapter 8) of the |
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Horowitz, Paul in an interview in David W Swift’s “SETI Pioneers : Scientists Talk About Their Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence” (1990) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 410 (in the unnumbered chapter entitled “Paul Horowitz”) of the Arizona hardback edition. |
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Kardashev, Nikolai S in an interview in David W Swift’s “SETI Pioneers : Scientists Talk About Their Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence” (1990) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 191 (in the unnumbered chapter entitled “Nikolai S Kardashev”) of the Arizona hardback edition. |
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Koerner, David & LeVay, Simon in their “Here Be Dragons” (2000) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 173 (in Chapter 7) of the |
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Lamb, David in his “The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence : A Philosophical Inquiry” (2001) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 182-185, 190 (in Chapter 7) of the Routledge softcover edition. |
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Marvels and Mysteries (Editors Of) in “Marvels and Mysteries: Aliens” (1995) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 40-41 of the Parrallel softcover edition. |
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Oliver, Bernard and Billingham, John et al in “Project Cyclops: A Design Study of a System for Detecting Extraterrestrial Intelligent Life : NASA Contractor Report 114445 (“NASA CR |
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Parker, Barry in his “Alien Life” (1998) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 171-172 (in Chapter 10) of the Plenum Trade hardback edition. |
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Poundstone, William in his “Carl Sagan: A Life in the Cosmos” (1999) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 151-152 (in the chapter entitled “Ithaca 1968- |
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Ridpath, Ian in his “Worlds Beyond” (1975) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 29 (in Chapter 1) of the Wildwood House softcover edition. |
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Roulet, Alfred in his “The Search for Intelligent Life in Outer Space” (1973) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 43-45 (in the unnumbered chapter entitled “Hello, Out There”), 120 (in the unnumbered chapter entitled “The Odds on Life in Space”) of the |
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Sagan, Carl in “Interstellar Communication : Scientific Perspectives” (1974) (edited by Cyril Ponnamperuma and A G W Cameron) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 19-22 (in Chapter 1) of the Houghton Mifflin softcover edition. |
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Sagan, Carl in his “The Cosmic Connection” (1973) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 233-234, 238 (in Chapter 34) of the Double Day hardcover edition, with the same page numbering in the Coronet softcover edition. |
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Shklovskii, Iosef Shmuelovich and Sagan, Carl in their “Intelligent Life in the Universe” (1966) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 394 (in Chapter 27), 476-478 (in Chapter 34) of the Picador softcover edition. |
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Shklovskii, Iosif in his “Five Billion Vodka Bottles to the Moon” (1991) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 253 (in Chapter 24) of the Norton hardback edition. |
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Stern, Donald K in “Cultures beyond the Earth : The Role of Anthropology in Outer Space” (1975) (edited by Magoroh Maruyama and Arthur Harkins) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 40-41 (in Chapter 2) of the Vintage paperback edition. |
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Stoneley, Jack and |
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Sullivan, Walter in his “We Are Not Alone” (1964) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at page 223 (in Chapter 15) of the Signet paperback revised editions. |
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Webb, Stephen in his “Where is Everybody?: Fifty Solutions to the Fermi Paradox” (2002) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 2 (in Chapter 1), 53-54 (in Chapter 2) of the Copernicus hardback edition. |
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White, Frank in his “The SETI Factor” (1990) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 54-56 (in Chapter 5) of the |
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White, Michael in his “Life Out There” (1998) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages 99-100 (in Chapter 5) of the Little, Brown & Co hardback edition. |
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Zubrin, Robert in his “Entering Space: Creating a Spacefaring Civilization” (1999) (available on Amazon USA and on Amazon UK) at pages x, xii-xiii (in the Introduction), 188-189 (in Chapter 9), 272-273 (in Chapter 11), 280 (in Chapter 12) of the Tarcher Putnam hardback edition. |
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Other Material
Kardashev, Nikolai S. "Transmission of Information by Extraterrestrial Civilizations," Soviet Astronomy, Volume 8, page 217 (1964).